O stranger, tell the Lacedaemonians that

we lie here, obedient to their words.

We all know the story of the Battle of Thermopylae, right? (right?!?) – 2,501 years ago in 480BC, having been foiled first by the weather and then the Athenians (and Plataeans) at Marathon, the Persians, under Xerxes, tried again to invade and conquer Greece. This time they brought an enormous army and fleet to bear on the usually disunited poleis of Greeks. Putting aside enough of their differences, a small (but not that small) Greek force squared up to the mighty Persian host at the narrow pass of Thermopylae, where three days of slaughter saw the annihilation of its Sparto-Thespian core in the name of buying time for the defence of their Greek homeland, taking 20,000 Persians with them into the afterlife.

With its themes of heroic persistence and sacrifice, loyalty and betrayal to name but a few, it is perhaps the most evocative story of the Ancient World and it was this historical tale recorded by the likes of Herodotus, Diodorus Siculus and others that was turned into a screenplay by George St. George and transferred to the big screen by 20th Century Fox and Polish-Hungarian-American director Rudolph Mate.

The resultant 1962 film 300 Spartans was made right in the middle of the era of the great Hollywood historical epics – Quo Vadis (1951); Ben Hur (1959); Spartacus (1960); Cleopatra (1963) – and its ‘sword-and-sandal’ subgenre in mostly Italian cinema (perhaps most famous for its poor English dubbing and eventual production of the ‘spaghetti western’).

However, 300 Spartans does not really belong to either of these groups. It was originally planned to be a ‘sword-and-sandal’ production with a concomitant lower budget, but the cooperation of the Greek government saw the budget expanded to around twice that of the usual ‘sword-and-sandal’ level. That said, even this expanded budget still paled in comparison to the money being thrown into the Hollywood epics of the time. To put things in perspective, the $1.35 million used to make 300 Spartans was around 10% of the budget for Spartacus and less than 4.5% of that of Cleopatra…

Under the working title of ‘Lion of Sparta’, what became 300 Spartans was filmed in Cinemascope in Greece, although not at the site of Thermopylae, likely due to the original site changing considerably due to the receding coastline. Instead, it was shot at the village of Perachora and around Lake Vouliagmenis, north of Corinth. On top of the listed cast (several of whom were experienced Greek actors), some 1,100 Royal Hellenic Army soldiers were used as extras, along with numerous locals and their animals (particularly for the mass of the Persian army).

As well as being perfect fodder for the cinematic trends of the time, the telling of the story of the Battle of the Thermopylae in the early 1960s has also been taken to reflect a political message on the background of the Cold War – ‘defenders of western freedom’ vs ‘the evil eastern empire’, but despite that, the film was a great success in Russia.

And why not?

The film manages to convey much of what is perhaps one of the most spectacular historical events of the Ancient World – heroic self-sacrifice against overwhelming odds and internal betrayal, comradery between men fighting side by side, religion and politics getting in the way of the fight for freedom, or the contrast between good (Greek) leadership and poor (Persian) leadership… 300 Spartans even adds in a couple of other literary/cinematic tropes of its own to the story with Artemisia positioned as the ‘deceptive woman’, working to bring down a ‘great man’ and a romance angle in the Greek ranks.

As you can imagine with a cinematic recreation of an historical event, there are some factual issues with 300 Spartans. I am not going to be overly critical, but it is worth having a look at some of its missteps, as well as some of the things that it did well.

At the outset, 300 Spartans presents a rather ‘Greece is Athens’ opening, as the establishing shots of Greece are all of the major sights in Athens. That said, while the Eurotas valley presents a picturesque scene, the remains of ancient Sparta or the Pass of Thermopylae are not exactly recognisably ‘Greek’ as the skyline of modern Athens.

The Persian Army of Xerxes (According to Herodotus...)

1,207 triremes with 200-man crews: Phoenicians along with "Syrians of Palestine", Egyptians, Cyprians, Cilicians, Pamphylians, Lycians, Dorians of Asia, Carians, Ionians, Aegean islanders, Aeolians, Pontic Greeks	241,400
30 marines per trireme from the Persians, Medes or Sacae	36,210
3,000 Galleys, including 50-oar penteconters (80-man crew), 30-oared ships, light galleys and horse-transports	240,000
Total of ships' complements	517,610
Infantry from 47 ethnic groups: Medes, Cissians, Hyrcanians, Assyrians, Chaldeans, Bactrians, Sacae, Indians, Arians, Parthians, Chorasmians, Sogdians, Gandarians, Dadicae, Caspians, Sarangae, Pactyes, Utians, Mycians, Paricanians, Arabians, Africa Ethiopians, Ethiopians of Baluchistan, Libyans, Paphlagonians, Ligyes, Matieni, Mariandyni, Cappadocians, Phrygians, Armenians, Lydians, Mysians, Asian Thracians, Lasonii, Milyae, Moschi, Tibareni, Macrones, Mossynoeci, Mares, Colchians, Alarodians, Saspirians and Red Sea islanders.	1,700,000
Horse cavalry from the Persians, Sagartians, Medes, Cissians, Indians, Caspians and Paricanians.	80,000
Arab camel troops and Libyan charioteers	20,000
Total Asian land and sea forces	2,317,610
120 triremes with 200-man crews from the Greeks of Thrace and the islands near it.	24,000
Balkan infantry from 13 ethnic groups: European Thracians, Paeonians, Eordi, Bottiaei, Chalcidians, Brygians, Pierians, Macedonians, Perrhaebi, Enienes, Dolopes, Magnesians, Achaeans	300,000
Total	2,641,610

It is not surprising that 300 Spartans leans into the historical record of Herodotus VII.60-61, 87, 184-185 on the size of the Persian army that invaded Greece as it builds up the ‘Big Bad’ that the heroic Spartan-led Greeks had to face down. That said, the more likely number of around 150,000 Persians crossing the plains of Thessaly and looking to force the Pass of Thermopylae was still the largest army than Greece had ever seen.

As for the Greek army, despite its title and a lot of its Lacedaemonian focus, 300 Spartans does not try to suggest that it was Persians vs only Spartans at Thermopylae. The Phocians defending the goat trail in the mountains are mentioned, as is the prominent roles of Demophilus and his Thespians, including their volunteering to remain behind in the pass with the Spartans in order to facilitate the escape of the rest of the army (a Theban force of 400 men was forced to stay behind too as they were thought to be on the verge of defecting, but this is not depicted in the film). Much of this Greek army – c.7,000 in total – is not shown in the movie, but it, along with the Greek fleet operating off the coast in the Malian Gulf, is in a way personified in the Athenian general, Themistocles (who was a little more friendly with the Spartans than history would suggest…).

The film even shows that the Spartan force of Leonidas itself was not solely made up of Spartans, as it has some non-hoplites working and then fighting alongside them. As these men were acting as dogsbodies for the Spartans, there were almost certainly intended to be helots (although the film perhaps does not present enough of them).

Of course, the most famous number involved with the Battle of Thermopylae is that of the ‘300 Spartans’ themselves. But this number comes with some warnings. As the Spartan force was made up of Leonidas and his 300-strong guard, it was initially ‘301 Spartans’, something that the film (accidentally?) references with Phyllon being recognised as the 301st Spartan at Thermopylae. Circumstances would then allow Phyllon’s father, Grellas, to fight alongside Leonidas, so the film actually has 302 Spartans fighting at Thermopylae.

As well as being the ‘301st Spartan’ and the focus of a love story, Phyllon is also used to depict the fact that not all Spartans who marched to Thermopylae actually died there. After being injured in one of the engagements with the Immortals, Phyllon is order by Leonidas to retire through the rear of the battlefield – Phyllon’s place was taken by his father Grellas, who was proven to not have betrayed Sparta as was thought, redeeming the honour of both himself and his son (the film does seem to forget to show Phyllon actually escaping with Ellas, but it is mentioned in passing that the rest of the Greek army had been able to retreat).

Out of the initial 301 who made up the Spartan force at Thermopylae, two are known to have survived the collapse of Leonidas’ position in the wake of the Immortals forcing of the mountain pass. They are named as Aristodemus and Pantites. The latter was not present at the last stand because Leonidas had sent him on an embassy to Thessaly and he had not made it back in time. Finding himself in disgrace at Sparta, Pantites later hanged himself (Herodotus VII.232).

Aristodemus was not present at the last stand due to being sent home by Leonidas as he had some kind of eye infection (Hogewind, B.F., Coebergh, J.A.F., Gritters-van den Oever, N.C., de Wolf, M.W.P and van der Wielen, G.J. ‘The ocular disease of Aristodemus and Eurytus 480 BC: diagnostic considerations’, International Ophthalmology 33 (2013) 107-109 suggested that it may have been the result of ingesting berries of the atropa belladonna plant – deadly nightshade). Such an illness leading to his excusing from fighting would likely not have reflected poorly on Aristodemus (Herodotus VII.229) had it not been for the actions of another victim of this eye infection – Eurytus. He too was excused from combat by Leonidas and together he and Aristodemus began the journey back to Sparta; however, upon hearing of the Persian forcing of the mountain pass and encirclement of the Spartan position, the largely blind Eurytus had his helot attendant lead him back to the battle, where he was killed.

Had Eurytus returned to Sparta with Aristodemus, neither are likely to have faced any sort of legal condemnation – they were after all following the orders of their king (but then Pantites had been too...). However, because Eurytus did turn back and died in combat, Aristodemus was condemned as a coward: “no man would give him a light for his fire or speak to him; he was called Aristodemus the Coward” (Herodotus VII.232). Aristodemus only removed this black mark of cowardice by throwing himself into the fighting at the Battle of Plataea, fighting (and dying) like a man possessed (Herodotus IX.71).

The ‘300’ Spartans... And Others...

	Herodotus VII.202-203	Diodorus Siculus XI.4
Lacedaemonians/Perioeci/helots	900?	1,000(including 300 Spartans)
Spartan hoplites	300	–
Mantineans	500	3,000(other Peloponnesians sent with Leonidas)
Tegeans	500
Arcadian Orchomenos	120
Other Arcadians	1,000
Corinthians	400
Phlians	200
Mycenaeans	80
Total Peloponnesians	3,100 or 4,000	4,000 or 4,300
Thespians	700	–
Malians	–	1,000
Thebans	400	400
Phocians	1,000	1,000
Opuntian Locrians	"All they had"	1,000
Grand total	5,200 (or 6,100) plus Opuntian Locrians	7,400 (or 7,700)

In reality, we have no way of knowing exactly how many Spartiates actually lined up to fight at the ‘Hot Gates’ – did all 301 who set out from Sparta make it to the battlefield? In the film, the arduousness of the journey was suggested in the difficulties both Ellas and Phyllon got into following the Spartan column. It would seem though that of the 301 Spartans to march to Thermopylae, only two survived the battle.

I must admit that upon viewing 300 Spartans recently that I was immediately struck by its depiction of the tactics used at the Battle of Thermopylae. In my mind’s eye, the fighting was not so out in the open; much more of the Persians trying to take a fortified position. But it does seem that the pass of Thermopylae was about 100 m wide and that at least some of the Greek force were stationed in front of the Phocian wall, which may seem a little strange given the recognition of its tactical usefulness in its rebuilding (reflected in the film), but it does seem to be historically accurate (cf. Herodotus VII.208, 223).

Given its necessarily limited run time, 300 Spartans reduces the combat at Thermopylae to a small number, almost just daily, Persian attacks on the Greek position, when instead the fighting “lasted all day” (Herodotus VII.210.2). The film also takes dramatic license with most of the manoeuvres, tactics and ruses de guerre employed by Leonidas and his men in order to add variety to the battle depiction. There is no mention of a Greek raid on the Persian camp prior to the battle, nor any preparing of the pass to use fire to hem in the Persian infantry or recognising and repelling of a Persian cavalry attack. Aside from their defensive position and the possibility that they employed some form of the phalanx – “the men stood shoulder to shoulder… [and were] superior in valour and in the great size of their shields” (Diodorus Siculus XI.7) – the only real tactic recorded being used by the Greeks at Thermopylae is the Spartan use of ‘feigned flight’, turning their back on the Persians in order to encourage them to break ranks and then turn around and fall upon them (Herodotus VII.211.3).

Another aspect of the Greek dispositions is that they “stood ordered in ranks by nation” (Herodotus VII.212.2), something reflected in 300 Spartans when Leonidas comments about men fighting better side by side with his friends. Of these many nations, in the ranks of both armies, you could question any number of costume choices for the various Greeks, Persians and other eastern peoples, but this would be expecting too much from almost any film.

Also for dramatic effect, the cinematic Xerxes exposed himself a little too much, not only at the battle, but beforehand too. In the opening scene of the Persian army crossing the Hellespont, it was a little surprising to not see the Spartan spy Agathon make a move to strike at the Persian king when he was brought mere feet before him. Similarly, at the film's climax, Xerxes was more than in range of a Greek arrow or javelin, although at least the Spartans, under their second-in-command, Pentheus (played by Robert Brown, who also played ‘M’ in the 1980s Bond films) did make a move to try to get to him.

The film makes much of the bravery, skill and military reputation of the Spartans, which was of course on full display at the Battle of Thermopylae, but it also presents other aspects of Spartan society, with a rather good level of historical accuracy.

The film makes use of famous pieces of ‘Laconic wit’ uttered at Thermopylae. One of the ‘300’, Dienekes was recorded responding to the Persian threat that their arrows would blot out the sun by saying that it would be good to fight in the shade (Herodotus VII.226.1-2; Plutarch, Moralia 225B puts this in the mouth of Leonidas (as does the film); cf. Stobaeus, Florilegium, VII.46; Valerius Maximus, III.7, ext. 8; Cicero, Tusculan Disputations, I.42).

300 Spartans also has Leonidas tell the Persians to ‘μολὼν λαβέ’ – ‘Come and take them’ – when the Greeks are told to surrender their arms, which is a recorded statement from the Spartan king, although in the pages of Plutarch, this appears not in a conversation but in an exchange of letters between Xerxes and Leonidas (Plutarch, Moralia 225D).

A less well-known Spartan retort of unnamed source is given to Phyllon when he is ordered to go back through the lines with orders – “I came with the army, not to carry messages, but to fight” (Plutarch, Moralia 225E). The story and script writers for 300 Spartans had certainly read their Herodotus and Plutarch.

300 Spartans also presents aspects of the Spartan political constitution, including its use of a dual kingship (although Leonidas’ Eurypontid colleague, Leotychidas II, gets no lines in his very brief appearances on screen). While the film is correct to present the Spartan ephorate as being comprised of 5 men, those men should be between 30 and 60 years old i.e. the age of military service. 300 Spartans seems to have its ephors as older men, suggesting that it has somewhat combined the ephorate with the Gerousia, the 30-strong Spartan ‘council of elders’ elected from those over 60.

The film’s depiction of the ephors as something of a check on power of the kings’ is correct, although their role in looking to enforce the respecting of the Carneia festival might have them going beyond their recorded purview. That said, religious festivals are recorded as hindering Spartan participation in military actions, with the Carneia impeding Spartan involvement at the battles of Marathon and Thermopylae (Herodotus VI.106, VII.206).

Another depiction in the film that caught my eye for positive and negative reasons was that of Spartan women. I have already mentioned 300 Spartans usage of the ‘deceptive woman’ trope in the form of Artemisia, and it uses something of another trope in having Queen Gorgo and Ellas taking part in some sort of weaving or cloth-making. This was something that the ordinary Greek woman would have partaken in, but in Sparta, cloth-making and weaving were considered activities for slaves/helots, rather than Spartan women.

Despite this mistake, 300 Spartans does present some accurate depictions of Spartan women. Their independence in comparison to other Greek women is mentioned. Women are seen in the company of men; Queen Gorgo is seen taking part in some court ceremony, while Phyllon seems to be having to sneak away from his duties to meet up with Ellas.

Ellas having trouble completing the march to Thermopylae might be a little at odds with the athletic training Spartan women underwent, but then Phyllon, a fully trained Spartan, had trouble completing the march too. Furthermore, Ellas was shown as being capable of physically defending herself, taking down both Phyllon and Ephialtes.

There are so many other things that could be brought up with regards to 300 Spartans and its successes and failures of historical accuracy, but that would be to miss the point of it being a movie made for entertainment, not a documentary, and holding Rudolph Mate, George St. George, the cast and crew up to an impossible standard.

As it is, the scriptwriters have clearly gone to some lengths to reflect events and even speech that are recorded in historical sources such Herodotus, Diodorus Siculus, Plutarch and others (even if that means leaning on some of said record’s exaggerations).

The Battle of Thermopylae has been celebrated since antiquity as an example of bravery, patriotism, sacrifice, and heroic persistence against seemingly impossible odds, and Rudolph Mate’s 1962 rendition, 300 Spartans, is a more than adequate retelling of that story.

300 Spartans (1962) and the Battle of Thermopylae

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